Friday, December 27, 2019
Teaching ESL - Free Essay Example
Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 7031 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHAPTER ONE:                                       INTRODUCTION In Malaysian classroom, a teacher had a solid control in the classroom, the interaction pattern where the teacher selects a student to answer her questions is observed by Samuel (1982) in his study in a Malaysian school. This pattern occurred particularly when the teacher employed the questioning strategy during the course of teaching. After answering the teachers question, the student gave the turn back to the teacher (Samuel, 1982, p. 129). Hence if the teacher chooses this pattern of interaction, participation of students will be highly controlled by him or her. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Teaching ESL" essay for you Create order When having teachers in monologic interaction, the class instructional practices will be on structured, discipline but it kills the desire to learn from the child instinct and at the same time does not arouse the critical and the creativity of a child. And this is totally different from the knowledge of the policy because in Malaysia Education Policy, it is stated that a teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s jobs is to nurture the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s critical and creative thinking. When a lesson that is supposed to practice on communicative language teaching ends with the teacher instructing and being authoritative in the class, it kills the desire to learn. In his findings, Ruzlan (2007) further found that all the questions posed by the teachers were the closed-ended in nature, where the children were anticipated to arrive at certain answers expected by the teachers only. At the same time, it was found that the majority of questions set by EFL and Science as content taught in English classes were low level and factual, and not designed to encourage critical thinking on the part of learners. Again, there was a mismatch between what is stipulated by the national curriculum and how teachers actually teach in terms of posing questions. While national policy stipulates helping learners become critical thinkers, teachers seems concern with others, short term goal. For instance teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ belief about their studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ academic needs and what they should do is tailoring their questions to align with examination purposes at a low level factual category (Habsah Hussin, 2006). It is proven that the practice of the policy is more on finishing the structured syllabus prepared by the school curriculum division rather than full filling the philosophy of education that is in building the students with the efforts towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large. With this issues, enlighten the researcher to explore the basic of the education teacher training. What has been practiced in schools reflects on the training of the teacher in teacher training institution. Is it the system or the implementation of it that caused the mismatched in the instructional practices? What is supposed to be done? What has been practiced in the teaching institution? The approaches practiced on the trainees. Does the traineeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to pose questions and interact with the students from the pedagogical aspects and methodological approach being prompt and develop? Do the trainers play their role as the facilitator and the mediator of the knowledge in ensuring the blooming of the beginner teachers? The trainers have to play their important role well in shaping the student teacher in becoming an excellent teacher. They should model the trainees in the instructional practices in college. Being the expertise, the trainers should be well prepared with various approaches in exploring the student teacher ability in learning the English language in order to become a capable and competent English teacher. 1.1 Purpose Of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the trainers in implementing their instructional practice in order to help the trainees to become effective second language teacher. As an ESL teacher and a second language learner, the researcher believes that interaction is the key to second language learning. Second language learners need comprehensible input, need to be in situations that provide maximum personal involvement in the communication and need opportunities to use the target language in social interactions. The learning of a language centres on the use of the language for communicative purposes. Alexander (2004) suggests that the basic repertoire of classroom talk is unlikely to offer the types of cognitive challenge required to extend studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ thinking. In contrast, he characterizes an approach he describes as dialogic teaching which is collective, reciprocal, supportive, cumulative and purposeful. However, these types of talk are less frequently encountere d in classrooms (Mroz et al., 2000). Dialogic pedagogies aim for classroom interactions that involve more than superficial participation. They are exemplified by the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s uptake of student ideas, authentic questions and the opportunity for students to change or modify the course of instruction (Nystrand et al., 2003). Teachers relinquish some measure of control of the trajectory of the lesson as pupils are offered a degree of collaborative influence over the co-construction of knowledge. 1.2 Importance of the study This study is important in four ways. First, as an eye opening to the concept of dialogic approach in the training institution and it is focusing on the classroom interaction between the trainees and the trainer in the class from the socio-cultural theory approach. Second, it gives a holistic view on what is happening in the class and what could be done to help the trainees to become competent user of the English Language learner. Third, it will trigger the needs for the trainers to have a series of cascade training organized by the Teacher Education Division, Malaysia in order to share, improve their approaches in class and vary their instructional teaching before they start teaching the trainees. Fourth, it will establish the culture of sharing and collaboration among the lecturers in the training institute. It requires the teachers to work collaboratively, to open their classroom for observation, critical reviews and discussion with peers. Lastly, it is focusing on the professional development of the trainers in providing the best approaches in exploring the best approach and varies their pedagogical approach in a second language learning class. 1.3             Research Questions. 1. To what extent do lecturers interact with students to develop their participation in classroom discourse? 2. How are the lecturers developing the English Language competency and critical thinking skills of students through the interaction in class? 3. How do lecturers evaluate their instructional teaching practices? 4. What impact has the Communicative Language Teaching had on the teaching practices to promote a dialogic pedagogy? 5. How useful is a dialogic approach to staff professional development? 1.4      Objectives of the study were as follows; 1. To measure the ways lecturers interact with the students to develop their participation in class. 2. To identify how lecturers develop English Language competency and critical thinking skills through the interaction in class. 3. To explore the lecturersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ instructional practices in second language learning class. 4. To explore the impact of the communicative language teaching policy on language learning in teacher training institutions. 5. To explore the usefulness of a dialogic approach to staff development in teacher training institutions. 1.5. Methodology Research design The focus of the study is to look at the quality of classroom interaction between the lecturer and the trainees. The literature has offered a wide array of descriptions and definitions of the case study, for example: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in which multiple sources of evidence are usedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Yin, 1984:23), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the qualitative case study can be defined as an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Merriam, 1988:16). Different from other research studies which aim for generalizable findings, case studies aim for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“an understanding of the particular case, in its idiosyncrasy, in its complexityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Stake, 1988:256). The case study aligns with my research objectives. It is focused on the two TESL lecturers, the researcher and their respective classes. The study is the interactive instructional practices of the two teachers, the researcher and their students. In order to provide a detailed and in-depth analytical description of the interactive features of the two cases, the researcher have to be into the research site and collected data from multiple sources in a naturalistic setting, namely, in a setting where teacher-student interaction occurs as it actually is. The main purpose of the study was not to attempt to generalize the conclusions to a larger population but to gain a thorough and in-depth understanding of the topic at issue. At the same time a combination of sociolinguistic and ethnographic perspectives has been taken to approach the above research questions. Data was collected using a range of techniques: interviewing, classroom observation, audio- and video-taping, oral report and stimulated reflection. The sample for the researcher came from the teacher training institution that is situated in Ipoh, between the Bachelor of Education Twinning program UK-MOEM (Ministry Of Education, Malaysia) and the English Language lecturers. Many teachers, even experienced ones, are not always aware of the nature of their interactions with individual students. Consequently, one of the most important purposes of systematic classroom observation is to improve teachers classroom instruction. Feedback from individual classroom profiles derived from systematic observations has been found to help teachers understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and have consequently enabled them to significantly improve their instruction. Through feedback, teachers can become aware of how their classroom functions and thus bring about changes they desire. This process typically involves having trained observers systematically observe teachers and their students in their classrooms and later providing teachers with information about their instruction in clinical sessions. This approach is based on the assumption that teachers value accurate information that they can use to improve their instruction. CHAPTER TWO                                       LITERATURE REVIEW. This chapter will be reviewed the discussion on the theoretical ground on second language acquisition, the approach in the classroom, the student teacher interaction and the instructional pattern of communication being implemented in the classroom. 2.1             Socio-cultural theory Introduction Vygotsky (1896-1934) is one of the Russian psychologists whose ideas have influenced the field of educational psychology and the field of education as whole. He argues for the uniqueness of the social milieu and regards sociocultural settings as the primary and determining factor in the development of higher forms of human mental activity such as voluntary attention, intentional memory, logical thought, planning, and problem solving. According to Vygotsky (1978 cited Lantolf 2000), the socio-cultural environment presents the child with a variety of tasks and demands, and engages the child in his world through the tools. In the early stages, Vygotsky claims that the child is completely dependent on other people, usually the parents, who initiate the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s actions by instructing him/her as to what to do, how to do it, as well as what not to do. Parents, as representatives of the culture and the conduit through which the culture passes into the child, actualise these instructions primarily through language. On the question of how do children then appropriate these cultural and social heritages, Vygotsky (1978 cited Wertsch 1985) states that the child acquires knowledge through contacts and interactions with people as the first step (inter-psychological plane), then later assimilates and internalises this knowledge adding his personal value to it (intra-psychological plane). This transition from social to personal property according to Vygotsky is not a mere copy, but a transformation of what had been learnt through interaction, into personal values. Vygotsky claims that this is what also happens in schools. Students do not merely copy teachers capabilities; rather they transform what teachers offer them during the processes of appropriation. Lantolf et al. (1994) indicate that the latter understanding of consciousness in the field of teaching is embodied in the concept of meta-cognition, which, according to him, incorporates functions such as planning, voluntary attention, logical memory, problem solving and evaluation. Williams and Burden (1997) claim that socio-cultural theory advocates that education should be concerned à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“not just with theories of instruction, but with learning to learn, developing skills and strategies to continue to learn, with making learning experiences meaningful and relevant to the individual, with developing and growing as a whole personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. They claim that the theory asserts that education can never be value-free; it must be underpinned by a set of beliefs about the kind of society that is being constructed and the kinds of explicit and implicit messages that will best convey those beliefs. These beliefs should be manifest also in the ways in which teachers interact with students. Socio-cultural theory has a holistic view about the act of learning. Williams Burden (1997) claim that the theory opposes the idea of the discrete teaching of skills and argues that meaning should constitute the central aspects of any unit of study. Any unit of study should be presented in all its complexity rather than skills and knowledge presented in isolation. The theory emphasizes the importance of what the learner brings to any learning situation as an active meaning-maker and problem-solver. It acknowledges the dynamic nature of the interplay between teachers, learners and tasks and provides a view of learning as arising from interactions with others. According to Ellis (2000), socio-cultural theory assumes that learning arises not through interaction but in interaction. Learners first succeed in performing a new task with the help of another person and then internalise this task so that they can perform it on their own. In this way, social interaction is advocated to mediate learning. According to Ellis, the theory goes further to say interactions that successfully mediate learning are those in which the learners scaffold the new tasks. However, one of the most important contributions of the theory is the distinction Vygotsky made between the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s actual and potential levels of development or what he calls Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Lantolf (2002), Wertsch (1985) and Shayer (2002) claim that Vygotskyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s introduction of the notion of the ZPD was due to his dissatisfaction with two practical issues in educational psychology: the first is the assessment of a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s intellectual abilities and the second is the evaluation of the instructional practices. With respect to the first issue, Vygotsky believes that the established techniques of testing only determine the actual level of development, but do not measure the potential ability of the child. In his view, psychology should address the issue of predicting a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s future growth, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“what he/she not yet isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Because of the value Vygotsky attached to the importance of predicting a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s future capabilities, he formulated the concept of ZPD which he defines as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the distance between a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s actual developmental level as determined by independ ent problem solving, and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Wertsch (1985, P. 60). According to him, ZPD helps in determining a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mental functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that are currently in an embryonic state, but will mature tomorrow. Moreover, he claims that the study of ZPD is also important, because it is the dynamic region of sensitivity in which the transition from inter-psychological to intra-psychological functioning takes place. Shayer (2002) claims that a crucial feature of learning according to Vygotsky is that it creates a ZPD, that is to say, learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers. Once these processes are internalised, they become part of the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s independent developmental achievement. Vygotsky advocates that ZPD is not the role of instruction alone, but developmental (biological) factors do have a role to play. It is jointly determined by the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s level of development and the form of instruction involved. According to him, instruction and development do not directly coincide, but represent two processes that exist in a very complex interrelationship. He argues that the child can operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“only within certain limits that are strictly fixed by the state of the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s development and inte llectual possibilitiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Mediation As in Feuerteinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s theory (Williams and Burden 1997), mediation is central to Vygotskyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s socio-cultural theory. Mediation according to Vygotsky refers to the part played by other significant people in the learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ lives, people who enhance their learning by selecting and shaping the learning experiences presented to them. Vygotsky (1978 cited Wertsch 1985) claims that the secret of effective learning lies in the nature of the social interaction between two or more people with different levels of skills and knowledge. This involves helping the learner to move into and through the next layer of knowledge or understanding. Vygotsky also regard tools as mediators and one of the important tools is language. The use of language to help learners move into and through their ZPD is of great significance to socio-cultural theory. Kozulin et al. (1995) claim that Vygotsky considers the learning process as not a solitary exploration of the environment by the child on his own, but as a process of the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s appropriation of the methods of actions that exist in a given culture. In the process of appropriation, symbolic tools or artefacts play a crucial role. Kozulin (2002) categorises mediators into two categories: human and symbolic. According to him, human mediation usually tries to answer the question concerning what kind of involvement on the part of the adult is effective in enhancing the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance; while symbolic mediation deals with what changes in the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance can be brought about by the introduction of the child to symbolic tools-mediators. Scaffolding According to Donato (1994) scaffolding is a concept that derives from cognitive psychology and L1 research. It states that in a social interaction, a knowledgeable participant can create by means of speech and supportive conditions in which the student (novice) can participate in and extend current skills and knowledge to a high level of competence. In an educational context, however, scaffolding is an instructional structure whereby the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility to the students. According to McKenzie, (1999) scaffolding provides the following advantages: a) It provides clear directions for students b) It clarifies purpose of the task c) It keeps students on task d) It offers assessment to clarify expectations e) It points students to worthy sources f) It reduces uncertainty, surprise and disappointment g) It delivers efficiency h) It creates momentum According to Rogoff (1990 in Donato, 1994), scaffolding implies the expertà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s active stance towards continual revisions of the scaffolding in response to the emerging capabilities of the learner, and a learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s error or limited capabilities can be a signal for the adult to upgrade the scaffolding. As the learner begins to take on more responsibility for the task, the adult dismantles the scaffold indicating that the child has benefited from the assisted performance and internalised the problem-solving processes provided by the previous scaffold episode. Wertsch (1979a cited Donato 1994) claims that scaffold performance is a dialogically constituted inter-psychological mechanism that promotes the learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s internalisation of knowledge co-constructed in shared activity. Donato (1994) advocates that in an L2 classroom, collaborative work among language learners provides the same opportunity for scaffold help as in expert-novice relation ships in the everyday setting. Van Lier (1988 cited Donato 1994) states that L2 teaching methodology can benefit from a study of L1 scaffolding to understand how classroom activities already tacitly employ such tactics. The study of scaffolding in L2 research according to Donato has focused exclusively on how language teachers provide guided assistance to learners. 2.2             Classroom interaction in socio-cultural theory A socio-cultural theory was pioneered by Vgotsky (1978) and the core of the theory is the proposition that cognitive development originates in social interaction. Vgotsky (1981) formulated the trajectory of cognitive development as from the inter-psychological plane to the intra-psychological plane by saying: Any function in the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s cultural development appears twice, or in two planes: first, it appears on the social plane, and then on the psychological plane; first it appears between people as an inter-psychological category, and then within the child as an intra-psychological category. This is equally true with regard to voluntary attention, logical memory and the formation of concepts and the development of volition (p.163). In other words, learning first takes place between a child and an expert (e.g. the childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s parent) when they engage in joint under-taking. The expert assists the young child to appropriate his greater knowledge or skills in relation to the task at hand and gradually hands over the task to the young child. The child internalizes what he gained and transformed it into his own resources that can be used for individual thinking and problem solving. It is mainly mediated by means of talk. 2.3.              Classroom interactions Constructivism Related to Questioning and Conversation Constructivism plays a key role in effective classroom conversations and differs from classrooms filled with traditional conversations. Schulte (1996) argued that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Constructivist teachers must observe the studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ actions and listen to their views without making judgments or trying to correct answersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 27). This differs from the traditional classroom where students are passive learners and wait for the teacher to give correct answers (Schulte, 1996). In contrast, constructivist classroom teachers must listen to students and help make connections between what they are thinking and what others are thinking during the same experience (Duckworth, 2006). Teachers must also make connections for learners between the learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s understandings and the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s understandings (Duckworth, 2006). Instead of giving lectures and expecting students to regurgitate what has been lectured, teachers must show students how to listen to others and question ideas when they are unknown (Duckworth, 2006). Teachers must make their actions known to students by using explicit language, modelling the thinking process, and allowing students to think aloud about new ideas (Bodrova Leong, 1996). Lambert, etal. (2002) supported the idea of sharing thoughts and ideas by stating, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“In a constructivist conversation, each individual comes to understand the purpose of talk, since the relationship is one of reciprocityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 65). Constructivist teaching allows students to actively participate in their learning versus the traditional idea of passively receiving information. It allows teachers and students to synthesize their knowledge in order to create new meanings. Classroom discourse based on a constructivistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view of learning involves student participation. This was explained by Hartman (1996) when stated, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“As seen through Vygotskyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s views, classroom discourse is socially meaningful activity because it creates a situation in which all students can and are encouraged to participate not only by the teacher, but by the other students as wellà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 99). Students are encouraged to share their ideas with others to help clarify their thoughts and make adjustments to their understandings (Schulte, 1996). Student participation means that teachers hand over control of classroom conversations and allow students to express their thinking aloud. This results in the student having the final word at times and helps the student create his or her own understanding instead of receiving the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s understanding of ideas (Duckworth, 2006). When students are allowed to explain their t hinking they must learn to be explicit and clear so others will understand them; that results in deeper understanding (Bodrova Leong, 1996). Student participation during classroom discourse allows students to practice problem-solving and decision-making skills that will help improve their leadership ability as adults. In Dantonio and Beisenherzà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2001) book Learning to Question, Questioning to Learn, constructivist classroom discussions are referred to as instructional conversations. In an instructional conversation, a teacher is skilful in facilitating talk that promotes student thinking. Students require guided practice in order to respond in a manner that leads to a deeper understanding of subject matter. With guidance, students learn to enhance the quality of their thinking through the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s effective use of questions. In line with Vygotskyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s zone of proximal development, instructional conversations provide students with opportunities to do today with help what can be done independently tomorrow. Teachers and students work together to create new meanings and understandings through effective questioning and higher level learner responses. Classroom discourse holds various meanings but definitions found in the literature hold a common ground: classroom discourse is talk between two or more persons that may or may not lead to a new understanding (Cazden, 2001; Mroz, Smith Hardman, 2000). Two definitions of classroom discourse were given by Cazden (1998). She described discourse as conversations where participants are having the same talk. Discourse was also described as an understanding that occurs when participants take different positions in different talks at the same time. In their research findings, Edwards and Mercer (1987) described classroom discourse as the talk that occurs between two or more people that usually consists of a teacher and one or more students. Additional researchers defined classroom discourse in their studies. Skidmore, Perez-Parent, and Arnfield (2003) proclaimed that classroom discourse contrasts to every day conversation because students must wait for their turn while patiently raising their hand. In everyday conversation people speak to one another at will to express their ideas and understandings. Similarly, Townsend and Pace (2005) noted that classroom discourse that is directed by one person, usually the teacher, results in students repeating predetermined ideas or mere facts. It contrasts to classrooms where students are given opportunities to explore higher level questions and engage in meaning making activities (Townsend Pace, 2005). Skidmore (1999) referred to traditional classroom discourse as, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢pedagogical dialogue,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in which someone who knows the truth instructs someone who is in error, and which is characterised by a tendency towards the use of authoritative discourse on the part of the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 17). All of these examples of classroom discourse vary from everyday conversations because students are subjected to waiting for a turn to give factual information. Researchers of classroom discourse refer to teacher dictated conversations as a traditional pattern of talk. 2.4             Research Studies on Classroom Interaction Many studies on classroom interactions focused on teacher questions, learner responses, or the effect of questions on student achievement. Studies by Redfield and Rousseau (1981), Chin (2006), Wells and Arauz (2006), Boyd and Rubin (2006), Myhill and Dunkin (2005), and Schleppenbach, Perry, and Miller (2007) were reviewed, compared, and contrasted. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) analyzed 20 studies on the effect of teacher questioning on student achievement. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) wanted to create a meta-analysis of data from the studies to determine the impact of program monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. All of the studies were experimental or quasi-experimental in nature. Quantitative tools were used to measure the effect size in each study. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) completed their research by stating, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Hence, it may be concluded that small-scale studies of teacher questioning behaviour have allowed for greater experimental control than large-scale studiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 242).It was found that teachers that predominately used higher cognitive questions had a positive effect on student achievement, and teachers that were trained in effective questions and used higher cognitive questions greatly affected their studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ achievement. Chin (2006) conducted a study focused on teacher questions and feedback to learner responses during science lessons. She wanted to analyze the type of talk that occurs during science lessons, find out how teachers use questioning to engage students, and identify the various types of feedback teachers give to learners during an initiation response-feedback exchange of talk. Chin (2006) gathered data from two science classrooms in Singapore during 14 lessons. To explain the data analysis, Chin (2006) explained, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“A à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"questioning-based discourseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ analytical framework was developed for the description and analysis of classroom discourse in science, with a focus on questioning based practicesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (p. 1334). It was found that when the teacher provided feedback in the form of subsequent questions that built upon a studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s response, acknowledgement of a studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s response, or a restatement of a studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s response, students responded at a level beyond recall. Chin (2006) concluded that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Students can be stretched mentally through sensitive teacher-led but not teacher dominated discourse. Wells and Arauz (2006) conducted a mixed-methods study examining the growth of teachers toward a dialogic stance of classroom interaction versus the traditional IRF pattern over a period of time. As part of the quantitative analysis in this study, classroom interactions were recorded, transcribed, and coded. The research took place over a 7 year period in 12 classrooms. It was found that teachers continued to teach using the traditional IRF pattern of discourse even when attempting to move toward a dialogic stance. Wells and Arauz (2006) concluded: What matters for the quality of interaction, it seems, is not so much how the sequence starts, but how it develops, and this, as we have argued, depends critically on the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s choice of roles and on how he or she utilizes the follow up move. (p. 421). These results were similar to Chinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s results on teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s follow-up feedback to learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ responses. Boyd and Rubin (2006) conducted research in an English language learners (ELL) science classroom over a 6 week period to see how a teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s choice of questions leads to lengthier and more elaborated responses from students. Classroom interactions were recorded, transcribed, and coded for six weeks with a focus on the length of student responses and the types of questions (display, authentic, clarification) asked by the teacher. It was found that the type of teacher question did not affect the length of responses by students. It was the contingency of questions upon learner responses that made a difference in the length the next learner response. Eighty eight percent of contingent display questions resulted in elaborated learner responses. The display questions required answers the teacher already knew, but she asked them as a follow-up to a studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s response. Like Chin (2006) and Wells and Arauz (2006), Boyd and Rubin (2006) found a teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s follow-up reply to a learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s response was more important than the type of question asked by the teacher. The question type was irrelevant as long as the teacher kept the flow of the conversation going based on what the students were thinking and saying. Myhill and Dunkin (2005) collected data from 54 teaching lessons to determine how the role of questions supported or extended studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ learning experiences. Videotaped lessons were transcribed and coded using a grounded theory approach. Questions were coded based on their type and function within the classroom interaction. Myhill and Dunkin (2005) found that most questions asked by the teacher were factual questions and did not require more than recitation by the students. They concluded that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The analysis indicates by far the most common form of question is the factual question and the most common function of questions is factual elicitationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Myhill Dunkin, 2005, p. 420). It was also found that teachers asked questions that built on understanding more often in literacy than any other subject. Although some of the factual questions elicited student thinking, they did not produce lengthy student response. Myhill and Dunkin (2005) concluded that teachers must find a way to let go of the control of discourse in the classroom and allow more time for students to simply speak. Unlike the other studies mentioned, the researchers felt that the type of question does affect the type of learner response given. CHAPTER THREE                          RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter is meant for the discussion of the methodology used for the propose study including the data à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"collection techniques employed. 3.1             Research purpose The aim of the research is to investigate the quality of student teacher interaction in the TESL Twinning Program in Teacher Training Institutions in the light of communicative language teaching in order to understand the knowledge construction process of student teacher interaction in teacher fronted class time and identify the contextual issues which shape the interaction and then to give the implication for future teaching practices. 3.2             Case study The case study aligns with my research objectives. My study focused on three single entities, namely two teachers, the researcher itself and their respective classes. The phenomenon studied was the interactive behaviors of the three teachers and their students. In order to provide a detailed and in depth analytical description of the interactive features of the three cases, the researcher went to the research site and collected data from multiple sources in a naturalistic setting namely, in a setting where student teacher interaction occurs as it is. The main purpose of the study is not to generalize the conclusions to a larger population but to gain a through and in depth understanding of the topic at issue and to develop new or revised approach which provide for further research. Data was collected using a range of techniques: interviewing, classroom observing, audio- and video-taping, oral report and stimulated reflection. Halkes and Olsen, cited in Richards and Lockhart (1994:29), suggest that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“looking from a teacher thinking perspective at teaching and learning, one is not so much striving for the disclosure of the effective teacher, but for the explanations and understanding of teaching processes as they are. After all, it is the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s subjective school related knowledge which determines for the most part what happens in the classroom; whether the teacher can articulate his/her knowledge or not.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Consequently before embarking on classroom observation an initial meeting was set up between the teacher and the observer. This is quite a challenge for the observer to gain the permission especially to enter the class because it is a common norm for teachers in Malaysia; they tend to work independently or in isolating. By having a meeting before hand and asking voluntarily from the lecturer to take part in the study and the consent letter from the Ministry of Education, Malaysia is a must for the observer This was done in order to create a friendly working relationship and to learn about the class and the teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s belief and her approaches to teaching. A discussion among the teachers involved in the case studies during classroom context is recorded. The researcher will work together with the teachers in the classroom context and the discussion on the critical moment that being video tapped shall be discussed and the exchange of ideas will help to improve the teaching techniques for both parties. At the same time, the lecturers also will observe the observer handling lessons and having a discussion on the teaching approach being used. The study involves four distinctive phase (Table One) Table 1.Time table for study Phase      Main activities Time Phase One * Review of relevant literature * Identification of sample-five lecturers and TESL A * Field note on classroom observation Jan- Dec 2009 August 2009 Phase Two * Pilot study-classroom observation April-June 2010 Phase Three * Analysis Data, rewrite April-Dec 2010 Phase Four * Final Feb-Oct 2011 3.2.1             Phase One. The researcher carried out classroom observation on teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s instructional practice in ESL classroom. The classes were observed very carefully during a week period for 3 times (for every lecturer. Consent was given from the Director of the College for the researcher to enter the class and observe the lesson. During the observation, the researcher took notes of teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ instructional practices in class (I-R-F) and studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ participation in teacher fronted questions was also observed. From my observation, the students were asking the teacher to give more explanation on the topic given (grammar) and they were very active in the class activities. The students were able to present the introductory of the lesson à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“reported speechà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? in group. The teacher acts as a facilitator but then again still control the dialogue of the group presentation. On my findings it is true, that the lecturer did use the IRF method in the class and the type of questions being post to the students, do not prompt the student ability in critical thinking and the type of the questions being asked is the type of low level question. If there is an up take, the teacher tends to simplified the questions and do not expand the question being raised by the students. Teachers still control the lesson and accepting answers in chorus. I end my pre-pilot study for about a month in my college and I will be coming back for the actual study in March 2010. Hopefully things will turn out to be better this time with new findings and good rapport of the lecturers for the betterment of the teaching practices. 3.2.2             Phase Two. Pilot Study Schedule (Weeks ) 13 29.03.2010 02.04.2010 Field-notes 14 05.04.2010 09.04.2010 Field-notes 15 12.04.2010 16.04.2010 Classroom observation, video tapping 16 19.04.2010 23.04.2010 Classroom observation, videotaping, In house discussion 17 26.04.2010 30.04.2010 Classroom Observation, video taping In house discussion 18 03.05.2010 10.05.2010 Discussion on the selected critical moments. ( self reflection) * The study will take about two months in the classroom observation and the researcher will have a discussion with the selected lecturers who is willingly to get involved in the study and their teaching is going to be recorded and interview will be conducted to validate and extend the researcherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interpretations of in-person observation. It provides the researcher with additional data that can be used to refine interpretations based on participant observations(Lancy,1993:LincolnGuba,1985;Rathclif,199) * The researcher is involved in the study and her teaching is going to be recorded and parts of her teaching is going to be selected by the group and discussed on the aspect of pedagogical approach. The discussion will be in the light of dialogic teaching and how it could be aligned with the communicative language teaching. * At the same time, the other two lecturers also who is willingly to take part in the study will have the opportunity to reflect on their teaching and evaluate on their own strength and weakness on certain approach in the content based teaching. * By having a dialogic discussion on the teaching aspects, the researcher hope it will create a culture of working together and exchanging approach in teaching practices. REFERENCES Amidon, E. Flanders, N. (1967). Interaction analysis as a feedback system. In E. J.   Amidon J.B. Hough (Eds.), Interaction analysis: Theory, research, and   application (pp. 121-140). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bodrova, E., Leong, D. J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. Burns, C. Myhill, D. (2004). Interactive or inactive? A consideration of the nature of interaction in whole class teaching. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34, 35-49. Busher, H. (2002). Ethics of research in education. In M. Coleman A.R.J. Briggs (Eds.), Research methods in educational leadership and management, (pp. 73- 89). London: SAGE Publications. Cazden, C. B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Cazden, C. B. (1998, March). Two meanings of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"discourseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Paper presented at the Plenary Panel of Past Presidents at the AAAL Annual Conference, Seattle, WA. Chin, C. (2006). Classroom interaction in science: Teacher questioning and feedback to studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ responses. International Journal of Science Education, 28(11), 1315- 1346. Dantonio, M. Beisenherz, P. C. (2001). Learning to question, questioning to learn: Developing effective teacher questioning practices. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Dantonio, M. Paradise, L. V. (1988). Teacher question-answer strategy and the cognitive correspondence between teacher questions and learner responses. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 21(3), 71-75. Dantonio, M. (1990). How can we create thinkers? Questioning strategies that work for teachers. Bloomington, IN: National Education Service. Duckworth, E. (2006). The having of wonderful ideas: And other essays on teaching and learning (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Ellis, R., 2000. Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 193-220 Edwards, A. D. Westgate, D. P. G. (1994). Investigating classroom talk. London: The Falmer Press. Edwards, D. (1993). But what do children really think? Discourse analysis and conceptual content in childrenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s talk. Cognition and Instruction, 11(3), 207-225. Edwards, D. Mercer, N. (1987). Common knowledge. New York: Methuen Company. Flanders, N. A. (1967). Some relationships among teacher influence, pupil attitudes and achievement. In E.J. Amidon J.B. Hough (Eds.), Interaction analysis: Theory, research, and application (pp. 121-140). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Flanders, N. A. (1967). Intent, action, and feedback: A preparation for teaching. In E.J. Amidon J.B. Hough (Eds.), Interaction analysis: Theory, research, and application (pp. 283-294). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Fullan, M. (1993). Why teachers must become change agents. Educational Leadership, 50(6), 12-17. Galton, M., Hargreaves, L., Comber, C., Wall, D., Pell, T. (1999). Changes in patterns of teacher interaction in primary classrooms: 1976-96. British Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 23-37. Hardman, F. Mroz, M. (1999). Post-16 English teaching: From recitation to discussion. Educational Review, 51(3), 283-293. Hartman, M. (1996). Thinking and learning in classroom discourse. Volta Review 98(3), 93-106. Kozulin, A., 2002. Sociocultural theory and the mediated learning experience. School Psychology International, Sage Publications Mercer, N. (1995). The guided construction of knowledge: Talk amongst teachers and learners. Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters, LTD. Mroz, M., Smith, F., Hardman, F. (2000). The discourse of the literacy hour. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(3), 379-390. Myhill, D. (2006). Talk, talk, talk: Teaching and learning in whole class discourse. Research Papers in Education, 21, 19-41. Myhill, D. Warren, P. (2005). Scaffolds or straitjackets? Critical moments in classroom discourse. Educational Review, 57(1), 55-69. Myhill, D. Dunkin, F. (2005). Questioning learning. Language and Education, 19(5), 415-427. Myhill, D. (2003). Principled understanding? Teaching the active and passive voice. Language and Education, 17(5), 355-370. Redfield, D. L. Rousseau, E. W. (1981). A meta-analysis of experimental research on teacher questioning behavior. Review of Educational Research, 51(2), 237-245. Rogoff, B., 1990. Apprenticeship in thinking, cognitive development in social context. USA: Oxford University Press Schleppenbach, M., Perry, M., Miller, K. F. (2007). The answer is only the beginning: Extended discourse in Chinese and U.S. classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 380-396. Schmoker, M. (2007). Reading, writing, and thinking for all. Educational Leadership, 64(7), 63-66. Schulte, P. L. (1996). A definition of constructivism. Science Scope, 20(3), 25-27. Shayer, M., 2002. Not just Piaget, not just Vygotsky, and certainly not Vygotsky as an alternative to Piaget. In: Shayer, M., ed. Learning intelligence, cognitive acceleration across the curriculum from 5 to 15 years. UK: Open University Press Skidmore, D. (1999, September). The dialogue of spoken word and written word. Paper presented at the annual conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Sussex at Brighton. Townsend, J. S. Pace, B. G. (2005). The many faces of Gertrude: Opening and closing possibilities in classroom talk. International Reading Association, 48(7), 594-605. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Wells, G. Arauz, R. M. (2006). Dialogue in the classroom. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14(3), 379-428. Wertsch, J., 1985. Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. UK: Harvard University Press Williams, M. and Burden, R., 1997. Psychology for language teachers, a social constructivist approach. UK: Cambridge University Press 1
Thursday, December 19, 2019
The Nazi Reign Of Terror - 878 Words
Most Americans are aware of the plight of the Jewish population during Nazi rule in Europe and the many horrific and revolting things that occurred during the Holocaust. Of the estimated eleven million people killed during the Holocaust, more than five million of these victims were not Jewish. Were non-Jewish people treated differently or did they suffer the same consequences under Nazi rule? The answer is, that while non-Jewish people often suffered the same fate as the Jews, the Jewish people suffered a more heinous and cruel version of the Nazi reign of terror as evidenced by historical accounts recounted by concentration camp survivors and those who lived during this time. Under the Nazi rule, the leader, Adolf Hitler’s design was to eradicate all groups other than the blue-eyed, fair-haired Aryans. Groups such as Polish Christians, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, Roma gypsies, the physically and intellectually disabled, prisoners of war and any other person or group opposed to Hitler were persecuted, but his first atrocities were aimed specifically at people of Jewish decent. To begin a discussion of victims during the Nazi rule in Europe, both Jewish and non-Jewish, one must first have a background into the Holocaust in general and what lead up to this event in history. It is also important to understand the hatred and terror that was forced upon the people, especially the Jewish people during this time. Adolf Hitler, as it is well known, came into power through aShow MoreRelatedThe Totalitarian Systems That Changed Lives Essay1370 Words  | 6 PagesLenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), its primary aim was to increase production and consumption, and the general standard of living. Soon after, Lenin had died. His successor was Joseph V. Stalin. His reign was known as one of the darkest periods in human history, the reign of terror. There were a lot of bad things Stalin did that was bad but it got worse later on. How do we kn ow that Stalin’s Russia was communist? The country controlled the media, culture, public life, limited human rightsRead MoreInteraction between Communism and Nazism and Their Societies Different Beliefs864 Words  | 4 Pagesraged from 1918 to 1920. The consequences of the war were a huge number of dead, wounded and displaced even worse than World War I. Joseph Stallin who was Lenin’s successor, he seized all the power of the state after Lenin’s death. He made the â€Å" Reign of Terror†. He created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. He renamed a lot of villages, towns and cities after the Soviet Leader. He controlled the media and he made censorship of of anything that might reflect badlyRead MoreThe Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in the 1930s as Totalitarian States1265 Words  | 6 PagesThe Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in the 1930s as Totalitarian States A totalitarian state usually refers to a country in which the central government has total control over almost all aspects of peoples life. Main features include an infallible leader, one-party rule, elitism, strict party discipline, purges against enemies and political dissidents, planned economy, strong armaments, indoctrination, encouragement of nationalism, an official doctrine that everybody has Read MoreJoseph Stalin : The Dictator Of The Soviet Union Essay1265 Words  | 6 PagesJoseph Stalin was a former general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist party of the Soviet Union. Stalin was the dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from 1929 to 1953. His Red Army helped defeat Nazi Germany during WWII. On December 18th, 1879, in the Russian peasant village of Gori, Georgia, Joseph Stalin was born. His full birthname was Josef Vissarionovich Djugashvili. He died on March 5th, 1953 in Kuntsevo Dacha. Joseph was buried in the Kremlin Wall NecropolisRead MoreA Comparison Between Hitler and Mussolini Essay example1442 Words  | 6 Pagesrole of women in a Nazi society but he never tried to force them to stay home, indeed, he supported their participation in industrial production. Hitlers rule was cold and calculating, his only joys were the tramping of military boots in Nazi parades and the huge applause at Nazi rallies. On the other hand Mussolini tried to appear o his people as a superman. It is true that the Italian dictatorship was more conservative in its application than that of Hitlers reign of terror. But, both theRead MoreThe Nature of Communism and Nazism Essay857 Words  | 4 Pagesestablished in Russia in 1917 by the Bolsheviks (later called communists). Under The State and Revolution, Lenin discussed implementation of dictatorship of the proletariat through the red terror and violent revolution. Darkest years of Russian communism were under J.V. Stalin, era called Reign of Terror, especially for its own Russian people. J.V.Stalin killed over 20 million people that were mostly Russians and many were sent to concentration camps, so called the Gulags. It is said that betweenRead More A Comparison Between Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini Essay1429 Words  | 6 Pagesrole of women in a Nazi society but he never tried to force them to stay home, indeed, he supported their participation in industrial production. Hitler’s rule was cold and calculating, his only joys were the tramping of military boots in Nazi parades and the huge applause at Nazi rallies. On the other hand Mussolini tried to appear o his people as a â€Å"superman†. It is true that the Italian dictatorship was more conservative in its application than that of Hitler’s reign of terror. But, both the fascistRead MoreQuentin Tarantinos Inglorious Bastards1197 Words  | 5 Pagesthese events occurred. Many Americans have watered down the Depiction of Jewish oppression during Nazi reign to swift easy round up into concentration camps. What Quentin Tarantino and the Jewish film community wanted to illustrate through this film is how this is an incorrect overgeneralization. Inglourious Basterds illustrates more realistic Jewish life during Nazi reign and the constant terror they faced. This oppression was far more personal, intimate, and cordial yet brutal altercations invokedRead MoreHitlers Domestic Policies and Their Popularity Essay953 Words  | 4 Pagesand Their Popularity Hitlers domestic policies enjoyed differing levels of support. Policies such as the economy and anti-semitism may have been popular and increased Nazi support. Alteratively, they may have been unpopular and repressive. When Hitler first came to power in 1933, the Nazi Party did not have majority support. Hitler aimed to strengthen their position further and increase support. When The Reichstag erupted into flames in February of 1933, itRead MoreEssay on Remember How Horrible the Holocaust Was544 Words  | 3 PagesHolocaust is a word of Greek origin meaning sacrifice by fire. But in the English language, the Holocaust was the most horrible genocide of approximatley six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. In January 1933, the Nazis came into power in Germany. They believed that Germans were the superior race, and that the Jews were inferior as well as a threat to the German racial community. It was not only the Jews that were deemed racial inferior:Gypsies, the disabled, and some
Wednesday, December 11, 2019
Cyber Terrorism - Critical Infrastructure Protection and Information Wa
Questions: 1. Identification and analysis of constitutional challenges aimed at preventing governmental abuse in the policing of cyber-crimes? 2. Negative Effects of Constitutional Challenges? 3. Three examples of cyber-crimes committed recently? Answers: Cyber Crime An Introduction In todays time Cyber crime is one of the fastest growing crimes globally. For committing a diverse range of criminal actions, criminals are exploiting the convenience, speed and anonymity of internet. Earlier these cyber crimes were committed by a group or individual but now it has been seen that large organizations are working behind this with criminal minded professionals, using advanced technology. Increasingly these organizations are turning to Internet, to smooth the progress of their activities and make the most of the profits within a very short period of time (Eggers, 2005). These cyber crimes engage a network and a system. A system is used to commit crimes but sometimes a computer itself becomes target. Cyber crimes have different types, some of them are mentioned below: Hacking: In this type of crime personal and private data information are accessed from a remote site by breaking the PCs.A variety of advanced softwares and technology are used to enter a persons system and he /she may not aware of this activity. Theft: Violating the copyrights and downloading the movies, software, games and music, falls under this type of category. Today there are numbers of websites which encourages the piracy (Google Books, 2015). Cyber Stalking:In this category firstly stalkers used to stalk the victims using Internet instead of offline stalking by online emails and messages. Identity Theft:In the identity theft category victims may have to suffer with major financial losses. Here the criminals are able to access the private data and information of a victims such as details of bank account, debit and credit cards etc and use to siphon money in the name of victim. Malicious Software: Program or software used to disturb a network to steal the sensitive data and information. Child soliciting abuse: In this type of cyber crime, minors are solicited for the intention of pornography via chats. Cyber crimes are categorized mainly into three types: 1. Individual 2. Property 3. Government Individual: Cyber stalking, trafficking pornography distribution is types of the cyber crime which fall under this category. Various forces are joining the Law Enforcement agencies and taking actions strictly to minimize the rates of such crimes (Jaishankar, 2011). Property: In this case siphon of money, misusing the by just stealing and robbing the persons very sensitive data and information such as bank details, credit debit cards details. Malicious programs and software are used to make these kinds of crimes. Government: This cyber crime category is not as similar as the other two. Crimes against the government, is known as cyber terrorism. This category may cause chaos and terror among the civilian population. In this category criminals used to hack the websites of government, military or spread misinformation (Kundi, 2014). The perpetrators may be anyone; they may be terrorists or unfriendly government of other nations. 1. Identification and analysis of constitutional challenges aimed at preventing governmental abuse in the policing of cyber-crimes Today Cyber crimes have increased exponentially, which lead to rise of several different new issues challenges for law its enforcement (Liang Lu, 2010). As proper legislation is base of cyber crime and prosecution, it is necessary to implement the proper legislation to control such crimes. Some of the major constitutional challenges are mentioned below: One of the most major challenges that are the recognition of possible network abuses of latest technologies and essential amendments. With each passing day the technology will accelerates its speed, this topic will remains relevant. Most of the Adjustments of national law: with the development of new technology adjusting the national law must begin with the recognition of an abuse. For investigation of potential cyber crime specific departments are required along with the law enforcement agencies (Liu, Xiao, Li, Liang Chen, 2012). With the developments of computer emergency response team, situation is now under control. In future it is expected that this measure may be proved very helpful in controlling the cyber crime. Gaps in the penal code should be identified: it is important to compare the present status of criminal legal provisions with necessities arising from latest criminal offences, to ensure that legislatives bases are effectual. In most of the e cases the new offences are covered by the existing laws. The requirement of the legislative foundations is only needed for those offences which are not covered by the national laws (McCusker, 2007). So, it is very important for important to eliminate or at least tried to minimize the gaps between the penal code to avoid these types of issues. Drafting of new legislation: It has been noticed that sometimes for a national authorities there may be difficulty in executing the drafting procedure without international cooperation. This is because of the rapid development and advancement of network technologies and in the complex structure of those technologies (Sciencedirect.com, 2015). So for drafting a new legislation cooperation of each country need the cooperation of other countries which results in the better introduction of law in country also help the other country to adopt the same for eradication of cyber crime problems. New Offences: Sometimes committed crime may not be offence but the scams modified more or less it is an offence. One of is its example is Fraud. In some countries computer is more influencing rather than the human. So it is necessary especially for these countries, computer related fraud should be criminalized with new laws. New Investigations Instruments are needed: Information communication technologies are used by wrongdoer in various ways for grounding and implementing their offences. For investigating those offences law enforcement agencies require sufficient instruments. If the austerity of illegal offences is beyond the ratio with the strength of interference then the utilization of analytical instruments will be baseless and illicit (Singh, 2007). To evaluate the changes in level of threat, it is important to observe ongoing criminal activities. On the foundation of fight against terrorism the justifications of new instruments will be done (Egele et al., 2011). There is need of some very effective measures to take care of wrongdoer. Hurdles to Effective Law Enforcement: there are numbers of factors which are responsible for lack of effectual law enforcement. Sometimes due to inadequate financial support for law enforcement of cybercrime, due not to which the effective measures are not taken to overcome these problems. There is need of trained cyber experts which will be helpful in taking some valuable actions to minimize the cyber crimes. During the drafting procedure due to not have the full and effective international cooperation it assist toward the cybercrime. Some other reasons are also responsible for deficiency in the effectual law enforcement (Heinonline.org, 2015). Some other reasons are also responsible for deficiency in the effectual law enforcement some of them are shortfall of universality of laws, statutory minimums etc. There is need to enrichment and refinement in the current laws to ensure that the new law will be helpful to conquer issues related to cyber crime. 2. Negative Effects of Constitutional Challenges However there are also negative aspects of constitutional challenges on the society and it also allow the criminals to prosecute their bad intentions to harm an individual or society or and country. Here are few negative effects of legal challenges which are mentioned below: First, sometimes value of authoritative standards are professed, on a moral value of particular. It enforce its demands and claims the authority how to live, hat to do or what to not. Due to this reason sometimes moral values of persons get affected. This led the criminals to implement their bad intentions and thoughts on an individual or group. Secondly the legal law steals conflicts from the person to whom it belongs to. Peoples get themselves surrounded by conflicts with one another. Such conflicts need to be resolved for both i.e. sufferer and the law breaker (Sheng, Chan, Li, Xianzhong Xiangjun, 2007). And in this case the belonging not goes to the victim or offender. This helps the criminals to mislead or misguide both the party giving their consolation and make them do the wrong thing according to their wish. Third is the legal law dealing with the process of punishments? Most of the times the punishment is so harsh because the harm caused is to be compensate instead of what is needed. These harsh punishments are not going to result to appropriate ends. This makes feel the backward-looking concern ('The effect of law enforcement stress on organizational commitment: Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies Management: Vol 28, No 2', 2015). 3. Three examples of cyber-crimes committed recently Some examples are mentioned here which shows the effect of cyber crime and the how rapidly it is growing with the advancement of technology. Various cyber crimes are committed recently which shows the growing intensity of such crime and most importantly its harsh consequences. In Pune, India one cyber crime took place in the year of 2011. According to police in this case consumer credit card details misused for booking of air-tickets through online means. It has been found that earlier culprits used to misuse those details belongings to 150 other peoples. The booking of tickets was done online. Police logged the details and it was found that a private institute is master mind of this crime. After the long investigation of police this is came in light that details were discovered from the State Bank of India. One of the employees of this bank working in the department of credit card, given his customers details to his friend named Lukkad. Lukkad used this information and booked the air tickets using online means. This crime leads the consumers to face huge financial losses (Egele et al., 2011).. In UK 17 suspected users are arrested by the police. These suspects designed the Black Shades malware to retrieve the information from the other computer. After the investigation of police it was found that the Black Shades was designed and sold online. It is basically the malware which enters into other computers and steals the private data g the and those data are misused for other purposes. In this case a 33 and 30 year men respectively are arrested (Watney, 2009). Law enforcement agencies arrested 17 people. These people are involved in halting the sale of illegal items including al and harmful products. Supply and endorsement of this sale was synchronized from Europol's European Cybercrime Centre. In this sale the harmful weapons, arms, drugs were included and the promotions were done through dark market place. After the hard working of 6 months Police were able to find out those culprits who were involved in this crime. Conclusion According to different reports and above discussion, it can be concluded that with the huge influence of technologies in our daily lives there is also a great impact of cyber crime in today in every ones life. So it is required to be aware as well as to work for the adoption of new advanced measures to get rid out of these types of cyber crime issues. These online crimes can only be resolved by the awareness and contribution of individual on its own level and actions to be taken by the working government of the nation. References: Egele, M., Caillat, B., Stringhini, G., Yakin, G., Zand, A., Cavedon, L., Vigna, G. (2011). Hit 'em where it hurts: a live security exercise on cyber situational awareness.Proceedings Of The 27Th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference, 51-61. doi:10.1145/2076732.2076740 Eggers, W. (2005).Government 2.0. Lanham, Md.: Rowman Littlefield. Google Books,. (2015).Cyber Security. Retrieved 29 July 2015, from https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=enlr=id=rn4iHxIJ9hwCoi=fndpg=PR7dq=hurdles+of+cyber+security+fraudots=i667uIiAQVsig=v-ZAoPzHZVWEf0GJCPFEYrtmzjc#v=onepageqf=false Jaishankar, K. (2011).Cyber criminology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Kundi, G. (2014). Digital Revolution, Cyber-Crimes And Cyber Legislation: A Challenge To Governments In Developing Countries.Journal Of Information Engineering And Applications,4(4), 61-70. Retrieved from https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JIEA/article/view/12430 Liang, B., Lu, H. (2010). Internet Development, Censorship, and Cyber Crimes in China.Journal Of Contemporary Criminal Justice,26(1), 103-120. doi:10.1177/1043986209350437 Liu, J., Xiao, Y., Li, S., Liang, W., Chen, C. (2012). Cyber Security and Privacy Issues in Smart Grids.Communications Surveys Amp; Tutorials, IEEE,14(4), 981-997. doi:10.1109/SURV.2011.122111.00145 McCusker, R. (2007). Transnational organised cyber crime: distinguishing threat from reality.Crime, Law And Social Change,46(4-5), 257-273. doi:10.1007/s10611-007-9059-3 Sciencedirect.com,. (2015).Measures of retaining digital evidence to prosecute computer-based cyber-crimes. Retrieved 29 July 2015, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920548906000456 Singh, P. (2007).Laws on cyber crimes. Jaipur, India: Book Enclave. The effect of law enforcement stress on organizational commitment: Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies Management: Vol 28, No 2. 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Wednesday, December 4, 2019
Teen Pregnancy (1108 words) Essay Example For Students
Teen Pregnancy (1108 words) Essay Teen PregnancyHow to prevent teen pregnancy has been a question for many years now. Statistics have been running wild trying to keep up with the teenage generation. Many people have their opinions on the subject (teen pregnancy), because teens seem to be getting pregnant all so fast these days. People fail to realize that having a baby is supposed to be a sort of privilege. Many people take having a baby as a joke. Getting pregnant and having a child involves many pros/cons. For example having a child can be harder on some people than it is on others. When having a baby there are a lot of things to worry about, for the most important part financial problems seem to be the most talked about of teen pregnancys. In the prevention of teen pregnancy there are many things that are helpful. For example Abstinence is a for sure factor of not getting pregnant. There are also other helpful ways to help prevent teen pregnancy, such as sex education and birth control. All of these things are ess ential in the helpful prevention of teen pregnancy. We will write a custom essay on Teen Pregnancy (1108 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Abstinence is when you give up something you desire or of pleasure to you. Abstaining from sexual activities is a great way to prevent teen pregnancy, and the risk of getting a disease. In the past years less sex and more condoms use has meant lower rates of teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease. Abstinence is not a crime, as most teenagers and their peers seem to think. Most teens have sex because of their peers being sexually active. The percentage of sexually active males declined from 57.4 percent to 48.8 percent, essentially erasing the gender gap. In high school students alone the rate for being sexually active went from being 66.7 percent to 60.9 percent in the years of 1991-1997. Abstinence is very important, but the peers your child hangs around are just as important. The Nurture Assumption says that peer groups matter a lot more than parents influencing how kids turn out, because you can pass your genes, but not your values. CDCs National Survey of Family Gro wth stated that teens are having less sex. CDCs also stated that more teenagers surveyed that their closest friends were involved in some sort of sex education class, and they were not sexually active. Abstaining from sex and learning more about sex are good ways to assure your knowledge and decrease teen pregnancy. Sex education is the study of the characteristics of being a male or a female. Such characteristics make up a persons sexuality. Traditionally children have received information about sexuality from their parents, church, friends, their doctors, and many other people. Many young teens learn about their bodies first. They learn their body part and why they are essential for the body to keep going each day. Many people believe that sex ed. being taught in schools assures children of correct and complete information about sexuality. How sex education is taught varies greatly from on program to another, whether in school or any other program. Sex education starts in kindergarten and continues through high school. From kindergarten through 4th grade, sex ed. teaches children about their bodies and attempts to promote a whole some attitude toward the self-development process. During these years teachers attempt to correct any false ideas children may have learned about sex. In the grades 5 th through 6th teachers try to prepare students for puberty. For example, the children learn about nocturnal emissions, menstruation and changes that will take place in their bodies, they also learn and study reproduction. From grades 7th through 9th most young adults interest in sex increases, so they learn more about responsibility, and boy/girl dating. In high school, students learn more about the social and psychological aspects of sexuality. Many other subject come up at this time in a teenagers life, such as marriage, abortion, homosexuality, birth control, and many other topics. Through the teenage years there are a lot of things to be learned and taught, but the most focused on is birth control as stated by John J. Burt, Ph. D., Dean, College of Health and Human Performance. Sex education is of much importance to the teenage generation. .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .postImageUrl , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:hover , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:visited , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:active { border:0!important; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:active , .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9d5089461aff821ceac4d767c8e9e8fd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Child Abuse EssayBirth control is the control of birth or of childbearing by deliberate measures to control or prevent conception, contraception. An understanding of birth control requires some knowledge of human reproduction. About every four weeks, an egg is released by one of the two ovaries in a womans body. The egg then passes through a fallopian tube, and if not fertilized while in the fallopian tube, it eventually disintegrates in the uterus. The egg then passes out of the body during a women menstruation. Sexually, coming from a man millions of sperm are released into the womans vagina. If an egg is there sperm traveling through a womans fallopian tube will fertili ze it fertilized by the sperm. At this point a human being develops and nine months later a child is born. Most birth control methods are made to prevent contraceptives. The most effective contraceptive method is surgical sterilization. This is when surgery is performed so it will block the spermducts in men or the fallopian tubes in women. There are also many other kinds of contraceptive methods; they involve hormone drugs in order to prevent pregnancy. In many developing nations hormone drugs are injected into the body. These injections must be given every 90 days in order to be effective. Some of the more popular birth controls today are the pill, condoms, Norplant, and the shot. All of these forms of birth control are used to prevent teen pregnancy. Studies show that those methods are becoming effective, because the teenage pregnancy rate has dropped by 11%. Birth control is important to teenagers, and they should be used if a teen should become sexually active. Parents should r emember to teach their children about birth control always, just in case a teen should become curious and decide to have sex. In conclusion teen pregnancy has hard an effect on society, in many ways. Most teen pregnancies were not planned. CDSs says about 65% of teen pregnancys were not even discussed with their sexual partners. All of the other percentage of teen pregnancys were not planned either, but it had been discussed with the teens sexual partner at some point in time. Most teens began having sex without knowing the consequences. Teenagers need to take responsibility and remember to keep safe, because there are various ways to prevent teen pregnancy, for example abstinence, sex education, and various types of birth control.
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